What is sensation seeking

Beforehand, the covariate was adjusted for extreme values following the procedure described above. Cortisol values were checked substantially and arithmetically for plausibility. To display the change in the response to the stressor, different characteristic values were calculated. Firstly, the increase from baseline to the jump was calculated by taking the difference between t 1 and t 4 i. In addition, two different versions of the area under the curve AUC were calculated, the area under the curve with respect to ground AUCg and the area under the curve with respect to increase AUCi; Pruessner et al.

The AUCg is considered as an indicator for the absolute cortisol concentration over time, mapping the total area of trapezes between the measurement points.

AUC i thus represents the change in cortisol over time compared to the baseline. If the value is positive, an increase occurs. If the AUCi value is negative, cortisol decreases. To test hypotheses 1 and 2, partial correlations between the independent and the dependent variables while controlling for covariates were calculated. The correlations are based on z -standardized variables.

To test hypotheses 3 and 4, hierarchical regressions were calculated, using SS and mindfulness plus the covariates as predictors and anxiety WAI-S at t 1 and t 3, anxiety thermometer at t 1, t 2, and t 3 and cortisol AUCg, AUCi, increase and cortisol at t 4 as criteria. Doing so, covariates were entered in step 1, followed by sensation seeking in step 2 and mindfulness in step 3. To increase the interpretability of the residues, predictors were grand-mean centered Field, The covariates age and previous climbing experience in hours were not centered because a useful unit already existed.

The assessment of statistical significance followed conventional criteria. Initially, the cortisol values were checked for plausibility: All values that were located outside the area that can be assessed for analyses using the assay 0.

This exclusion affected three participants for t 1 and two participants for t 3. Missing values were replaced using multiple imputation: This affected three participants for t 1 and four participants for t 3. In total, seven participants had to be excluded from the study because of content-related reasons or an extreme value at the third measurement point. As there were no significant correlations between the experimental condition ego depletion vs. Based on the significant correlations see Supplementary Material 1 , the covariates age, fitness state and climbing frequency as well as the WAI-T index were included in the respective analyses.

To indicate the overall effectiveness of the stress manipulation i. In response to the stressor, on a psychological level, anxiety as indexed by the anxiety thermometer increased significantly over time baseline t 1 compared to t 2 on top of the climbing wall by an average of 2. On a physiological level, salivary cortisol concentrations t 1 compared to t 4 showed a slight but non-significant increase by an average of 0. Regarding Hypothesis 1a, sensation seeking SS total score did not significantly correlate with any of the anxiety measures at baseline i.

No significant correlations of the SS total score were found with the WAI-S somatic scale at t 3 as well as with the anxiety thermometer at t 2 or t 3. Regarding Hypothesis 1b, no relationship was observed between sensation seeking and cortisol responses see Table 3. Table 3. Partial correlations of the independent variables with the psychological and physiological dependent variables. Regarding Hypothesis 2a, mindfulness KIMS index was negatively correlated with one component of anxiety i.

No other significant correlations were found. Regarding Hypothesis 2b, no relationship was observed between mindfulness and cortisol responses see Table 3. No significant associations were found between the remaining dependent variables see Table 4. The reason may be that, as argued by Pruessner et al. Table 4. Partial correlations of the psychological and physiological dependent variables. Regarding Hypothesis 3a, after controlling for covariates, sensation seeking SS total score did not predict any of the WAI-S anxiety measures at baseline i.

After the climb i. For the confidence component, SS was found to be a marginally significant predictor see Table 5. Regarding Hypothesis 3b, no significant associations were observed between sensation seeking SS total score and any of the physiological variables i.

Table 5. Together, the three predictors could explain Mindfulness did not predict anxiety as measured with the anxiety thermometers at any measurement point see Table 5. Regarding Hypothesis 4b, no significant associations were observed between mindfulness KIMS index and any of the physiological variables i. It was hypothesized that both sensation seeking and mindfulness would negatively correlate with anxiety H1a and H2a and cortisol H1b and H2b , that sensation seeking would be a significant predictor of anxiety and cortisol in response to the HRSST H3a and H3b , and that — beyond sensation seeking — mindfulness would explain additional variance in anxiety and cortisol H4a and H4b.

At t 3, we found a significant negative relationship between SS and two of the subscales of state anxiety the somatic and the cognitive component. In the corresponding regression analyses i. This observation is in line with a study conducted by Breivik a , in which the difference in SS between high risk sports athletes and sport science students was also caused by TAS and ES.

The current results are in line with the psychobiological multilevel theory Zuckerman, and show that HSS differ from LSS in their psychological response to an unexpected stimulus, in this case the jump into the rope. Contradicting H1a and H3a, SS was neither significantly associated with nor significantly predicted the confidence component of state anxiety. Whilst speculative, this may relate to the nature of the current task i. Potentially, with higher levels of task experience or in tasks that allow more control, sensation seeking may also boost self-confidence and further contribute to the positive appraisal of high-risk performance environments that is characteristic of HSS.

With the effect of SS on anxiety being generally small see Table 5 , one explanation for the absence of this effect may be that — being a one-item measure — the anxiety thermometer may simply not have been sensitive enough to detect a statistically significant difference. Indeed, a posteriori power analyses with G-Power Faul et al.

Our findings largely contradict hypotheses H2a and H4a in that mindfulness was neither significantly associated with nor significantly predicted anxiety in response to the HRSST. The only significant associations that were observed regarded the WAI-S confidence subscale at baseline see Tables 3 , 5 , indicating that mindful individuals tended to show slightly lower baseline levels of confidence. Note however, that baseline levels of confidence were generally positive and showed little between-subject variation see Table 1.

As such, the observed effect is likely to be of low clinical significance. Participants with a stronger tendency to explicitly describe phenomena in their surroundings reported lower confidence before and after the jump. The general absence of significant effects regarding mindfulness may be explained by the correlational design of the current study and, potentially, insufficient variability in trait mindfulness as measured with the KIMS , as well as the fact that the current study deliberately examined effects of mindfulness over and above effects of sensation seeking.

As can be seen in Table 5 , in case of significant effects, substantial variance in outcome measures was often explained by covariates e. Still, narrative research from extreme sports Brymer and Schweitzer, ; Arijs et al.

Future studies are advised to consider effects across a broader range of mindfulness, either by contrasting extremes or by implementing tailored mindfulness interventions. This lack of association is surprising, as a previous study using the same stress induction protocol Frenkel et al. In the broader literature, however, an apparent dissociation between physiological and psychological stress responses is not uncommon Breivik, a ; Kudielka et al.

This controversy of the results is explained, among others, by inter-individual differences in the degree of psycho-physiological correspondence, or possible mediating factors. In explaining the observed null-finding, it is important to consider that the current sample consisted exclusively of highly fit and physically active sport science students, whose self-reported fitness level averaged around In line with the stressor adaptation hypothesis CSA hypothesis; Sothmann et al.

Addressing this issue, future studies on risk sport-specific stress which examine a highly physically active population, are advised to consider additional means to further intensify the stress protocol. Our findings contradict hypotheses H2b and H4b, indicating no significant associations between mindfulness and physiological stress response measured by salivary cortisol. As with sensation seeking, this null-finding is likely explained by the non-significant increase in cortisol following the HRSST.

In addition to increasing the intensity of the stressor, future studies may consider to examine effects in the context of mindfulness- and acceptance-based interventions e. One intervention study that did investigate effects of a mindfulness intervention on HPA axis activation reported decreased salivary cortisol levels following mindfulness John et al. In this regard, potential implications remain promising. To our knowledge, the current study is the first to examine the effects of sensation seeking and trait mindfulness on psychological and physiological responses to a standardized risk sport-specific stressor.

A strength of the current study is the application of an experimentally controlled nature and external validity of the stressor, the HRSST, which allows robust examinations of stress responses and realistically mimics stressful situations in high risk sports.

Results from the current study, as well as previous work e. It is therefore important to further develop the paradigm so that an increase in cortisol can be reliably induced — also in highly fit and physically active populations. Potential considerations include prolonging the task or adding additional external stressors such as observation or evaluation.

Regarding the impact of sensation seeking and mindfulness, the current study employed a correlational design. While this informs about natural between-individual variability, stronger effects may be expected by considering extremes or — with regard to mindfulness — employing within-subject manipulations e.

Breivik, a. Moving beyond the immediate context of high risk sports, this finding bears relevance for other high risk contexts and occupations, such as firefighting, policing or the military, where individuals are confronted with similar stressors and threats to their physical integrity Neria et al.

In the current study, only male participants were included and — hence — potential gender-specific differences in sensation seeking, mindfulness and stress responses, were not taken into account.

In extrapolating the current findings to the wider population, these differences should be taken into account. In addition, and in light of recent work from clinical psychology Engel-Yeger et al. Finally, in order to forward understanding of high risk sports performance, it is important to replicate the current findings and contrast observations with those obtained among actual risk sport athletes e.

Because of the far-reaching negative consequences of stress, identifying protective factors to secure and improve the health and performance of people who are exposed to highly demanding and risky situations e.

With regards to the protective influence of sensation seeking and mindfulness, the current study takes a first step in addressing this issue.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this manuscript will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation, to any qualified researcher. This manuscript at hand was mutually developed. Each author contributed to the study planning, data analysis, and interpretation with an additional focus on their respective area of competence.

All authors contributed crucially in drafting the aim of the study, concretizing the design, and finishing the manuscript, and examined and agreed to the submitted version of the manuscript. MF interpreted the data, wrote the first draft of the manuscript together with JB, managed the communication between all authors during the development of the manuscript, assumed responsibility for being the corresponding author, and for keeping the co-authors informed of the progress through the editorial review process, the contents of the reviews, and any revisions made.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. We gratefully acknowledge Dr. Special thanks to Friederike Uhlenbrock and Thomas Stoll for helping with the data collection in this study as well as to Laura Giessing and Friederike Uhlenbrock for their careful proofreading of the manuscript. We also thank the participating students.

Adam, E. Assessing salivary cortisol in large-scale, epidemiological research. Psychoneuroendocrinology 34, — Allen, M. Personality in sport: a comprehensive review.

Evidence also indicates that men tend to score higher than women in sensation seeking, which is likely related to the finding that sensation seeking is positively correlated with testosterone levels. In addition, sensation seeking appears to peak during late adolescence and then decrease with age. Sensation seeking has been found to be related to a wide range of overt social behaviors, some of which are likely caused by the tendency for sensation seekers to perceive less risk in a given situation than do low sensation seekers.

For example, sensation seekers more frequently engage in adventure sports e. Sensation seeking has been suggested as a disease-prone personality because many of the behaviors associated with sensation seeking are potentially harmful to health whereas others concern social problems. They are thrill-seekers and adrenaline junkies, people looking for a buzz. To some extent, we all crave complex and new experiences—that is, we all seek new sensations.

But what sets high sensation-seeking personalities apart? The extreme products and activities that have emerged in the last decade—like X Games, the Extreme Sports Channel, or even Burning Man—responded to our collective interest in sensation seeking. And these extreme activities have spread quickly as their early adopters—people with high sensation-seeking personalities—devour them with gusto and share their experiences enthusiastically on various social media platforms.

Indeed, there can come a point when sensation seeking becomes an unhealthy obsession. However, high sensation-seeking individuals may experience less stress and may be more resilient and fearless and calm in the face of danger.

So, there might be something to learn from the thrill-seeking personality. What is sensation seeking and what can we learn from the high sensation seekers around us? It began in a dark room filled with nothing—literally.

They were trying to get to the bottom of mind control. In some cases, people would sit alone in a dark, sound-dampened room with nothing to do. Zuckerman wanted to know how people reacted to a loss of sensations. For the first hour or so, all the research subjects simply sat in the nothingness. But after that, things changed. Some sat quietly for hours upon hours.

Others fidgeted, squirmed, and became bored and anxious, among other things. Zuckerman created a Sensation Seeking scale to assess each of these four components. You can take a version at drkencarter. Strangely, no existing psychological test could reliably predict how subjects would react to sensory deprivation. Zuckerman and his colleagues speculated that some people were high sensation seekers and some were not.

Zuckerman realized that sensation seeking was not only a quest for external stimulation, as they had originally thought; it seemed as though high sensation seekers wanted unique experiences, too. He argued that sensation seekers are sensitive to their experiences and choose stimulation that maximizes them. Sensation can come from emotions, physical activities, clothes, food, or even other people. Someone with a high sensation-seeking personality actively pursues experiences.

This may in turn drive reward-seeking behavior. The involvement of dopamine in novelty-seeking behavior may also explain the well-established relationship between high sensation-seeking and drug use. High-sensation seekers are more likely than lows to try drugs earlier, to become addicted, and to experiment with multiple drugs.

Like drugs of abuse, exposure to novel stimuli releases a rush of dopamine in reward areas of the brain. And, high-sensation seekers often develop a sort of tolerance to high-risk activities—boredom sets in, and they are compelled to add new twists that re-create the initial charge. The same is true for sex. High-sensation seekers may get bored with the same partner or routine, so they seek out new partners or scenarios to try to regain excitement. Sensation-seeking also intersects with the fear system.

Individual differences in how the brain responds to fear, balanced with how it is wired for reward, may help explain differences in sensation-seeking. They may be able to more effectively engage cognitive brain regions to put a fearsome stimulus into proper context, which is pertinent to some activities.

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